CONTROL OF PARASITIC INFECTION IN DONKEY

Pasture hygiene

It is claimed that 99% of worms occur on the pasture, whereas 1% occur in the horse (Rose et al, 2000). This statement is equally applicable to the donkey and so no worm control programme should depend solely on drugs. It should also include good pasture and stable management:

• Good stable and pasture hygiene
• Rotational grazing, proper pasture management and harrowing pastures (when weather conditions are optimal) is most important
• Removal of dung at least twice a week either manually or mechanically significantly reduces pasture contamination (Corbett et al)
• Faecal sampling should be conducted at least four times a year
• If donkeys are at pasture in the winter months then faecal sampling may need to be carried out throughout the year depending upon weather conditions
• Grazing pasture should be rested for as much of the year as possible
• Managing young stock, which has lower natural immunity to parasites, on separate pastures from older groups

The use of sheep may increase the incidence of the stomach worm Trichostrongylus axei, but the pathogenecity of this species in donkeys is rarely a problem.

The above principles can be applied to donkeys in most cases. Owners should always be advised to consult their veterinary surgeon regarding periodicity of faecal sampling/worming with regard to their own specific circumstances.

Working donkeys

Under tropical weather conditions in most developing countries, the dry season is not favourable for the development and survival of the free living and parasitic stages and so there is relatively little danger of acquiring infection at this time of year.

Generally, animals have a high probability of acquiring infection from pasture during and immediately following wet seasons.

Treating donkeys at the beginning and end of the rainy season therefore seems to be sufficient under such climatic conditions.

The efficacy of worming strategies in any country should be carefully monitored by laboratory analysis and condition scoring.

An epidemiological assessment of weight loss or anaemia should complement any monitoring process to determine the impact of dental disease and/or poor nutrition.

Reference

• Christopher J Corbett, Sandy Love, Anna Moore, Faith A. Burden, Jacqui. B. Matthews, Matthew Denwood. January 2014. The effectiveness of faecal removal methods of pasture management to control the cyathostomin burden of donkeys. Parasites and Vectors. 7:48.
  
• Rose, R.J., Hodgson, D.R. (2000). Manual of Equine Practice. W.B Saunders, Pennsylvania, USA.

FEEDING ADVICE FOR DONKEY

Donkeys require specialist feeding, they are not a small horse and should not be fed as such. They require fewer calories to maintain weight than a pony of the same size and enjoy trickle feeding on highly fibrous feeds similar to those found in their natural habitat.
Donkeys are particularly prone to obesity and laminitis when kept in the UK and need careful dietary management to avoid problems.
The following is basic feeding advice for normal, healthy animals, if you require more specialist advice e.g. geriatric animals please contact us for further information.


DO’S

• Provide the donkey with good quality feeding straw (barley and wheat are best) ad lib with small quantities of hay, haylage or gazing plus a vitamin and mineral supplement such as Top Spec Donkey Forage Balancer that does not promote weight gain.
  
• Check the donkey can manage to eat long fibres such as straw, haylage, and hay.
  
• Donkeys with dental issues may require long fibres to be replaced by a short chop diet instead. Donkeys should have their teeth checked by a Vet or Equine Dental Technician at least once a year.
  
• Condition score donkeys regularly, they are prone to weight gain which can predispose them to laminitis and hyperlipaemia.
  
• Feed according to body condition, restrict intake of energy rich feeds e.g. hay, haylage or grass if the donkey is overweight but always ensure a source of fibre (e.g. straw) is available to satisfy their need to trickle feed.
  
• Restrict grazing carefully, donkeys are very prone to laminitis, and the quantity of grazing should be controlled by restricting the size of the paddock rather than time at grazing.
  
• Make changes to a donkey’s diet very gradually over a period of 4-6 weeks.
  
• Ensure all supplementary feeds are high in fibre, low in calories and suitable for laminitics.
  

DON’TS

• Avoid all cereal based feeds, donkeys can be maintained and encouraged to gain weight on fibre based products without the need for inappropriate cereal feeds.
  
• Don’t feed sugary treats. Chopped apples, carrots, and high fibre nuts are more suitable.
  
  
• Don’t feed supplements unnecessarily; donkeys only require a vitamin and mineral supplement unless other products are recommended by your vet. Supplements may in fact put donkeys off feed or they can over dose nutrients leading to problems.
  
• Don’t provide sugar based licks, these are often marketed, as ‘boredom breakers’ but are not suitable for donkeys due to their high sugar content.
  
• Don't feed straw with retained grain, always check for this and the quality before buying large quantities.
  
• Don’t restrict total food intake to encourage weight loss, dieting should be done carefully using low calorie products in combination with exercise. Extreme dieting can put donkeys at risk of developing hyperlipaemia. 

POSSIBLE DIETS


An average sized (175kg) healthy, mature donkey will require 2-3kg of feed per day to satisfy their appetite. 
In the majority of cases this should be solely provided by straw, hay and restricted grazing plus a vitamin and mineral balancer.
 A guideline for donkeys with good teeth is that straw should constitute 75% of the total dietary intake during summer months and 50% in the winter with hay and restricted grazing making up the balance.
 Supplementary feeds suitable for donkeys requiring extra condition include:
Soaked High Fibre Nuts e.g. 
Spillers High Fibre Nuts and Saracen’s Donkey Diet;
Speedi Beet – excellent as a ‘top dressing’ for soaked fibre nuts; and
Top Spec Donkey Forage Balancer for all donkeys and Top Spec Comprehensive (for donkeys that need to gain condition), both fed at 100g per 100kg bodyweight per day .i.e. a 150kg donkey will be fed 150g of the balancer. 
Always introduce changes to the diet gradually and observe your donkey to ensure that it is eating.
Try to avoid feeding your donkeys more than 1 kg of food at time, small frequent meals are best. Always ensure that donkeys have access to fresh clean water and an equine specific mineral lick if not being fed a vitamin and mineral supplement/balancer.



Reference
http://commons.wikivet.net/images/5/50/General_Donkey_Feeding_Advice.pdf

FEEDING THE DONKEY WITH DENTAL PROBLEMS

Donkeys with dental disease require specialist feeding which often requires major changes to feeding and management.
All donkeys should have a dental examination with a gag at least once a year.
Below are tips on feeding animals with dental disease safely whilst avoiding other problems such as colic and laminitis:

DO’S

• Do assess the donkey’s ability to chew long fibres (hay, straw and haylage)
  
• Do take in to account the donkey’s consumption of bedding (straw), if the donkey tries to eat bedding that it can’t manage advise a change to non-edible wood shavings
  
• Provide a good quality, soft hay if the donkey’s teeth allow it
  
• Donkeys with very poor teeth may need all long fibres replacing – use short chopped products designed as hay replacers
  
• Feed according to body condition, donkeys with poor teeth are often still overweight
  
• Encourage owners to feed ‘little and often’ to ensure donkeys are trickle feeding as they would in the wild, if possible encourage ad lib feeding of hay replacers
  
• Assess grazing management, very short or fibrous grazing may be difficult to eat, restricted areas of medium length grass may be more appropriate in some cases
  
• If the donkey has had extensive dental work consider using soaked high fibre nuts in the 3-7 days afterwards to encourage sustained energy intake

DON’TS

• Avoid all cereal based feeds, donkeys can be maintained and encouraged to gain weight on fibre based products without the need for inappropriate cereal feeds
  
• Don’t feed dry feeds, always make sure they are damp, donkeys with dental problems will often choke on feeds that are dry as they are swallowed whole rather than chewed
  
• Don’t provide very fibrous alfalfa products as hay replacers as they are too difficult to chew
  
• Don’t feed unmanageable treats e.g. chopped carrots/apples, these are better grated or puréed

POSSIBLE DIETS

Long fibre forages may need supplementing or completely replacing depending upon the severity of the problem.
Donkeys able to manage some hay but that are not maintaining weight can be provided with supplementary feeds, we have successfully used the following:
Soaked high fibre nuts (Spillers High Fibre Nuts and Saracens Donkey Diet)
Speedi Beet (made by British Horse Feeds) – excellent as a top dressing for high fibre nuts to increase palatability
Fibre Beet (made by British Horse Feeds) – high calorie alfalfa-based product, excellent as a bucket feed for very underweight animals

Feed Balancer – Top Spec Donkey Forage Balancer (for ideal/overweight donkeys) or Top Spec Comprehensive (for underweight donkeys) may be good additions to the diet for elderly donkeys with poor teeth that are on a forage based diet.
The balancer may need soaking to make it easier to eat. Donkeys unable to manage any long fibre – use short chopped products designed as hay replacers. We have successfully used the following:
Mollichaff Hoofkind – feed to underweight / geriatric animals, provide 2 – 3 kg per day to satisfy appetite
Mollichaff Donkey – more suitable for ideal weight or overweight animals, provide 2 – 3 kg per day to satisfy appetite.

Reference
http://commons.wikivet.net/images/d/d7/Feeding_the_Donkey_with_Dental_Problems.pdf

DONKEY FOOT CARE ADVICE

CARE OF THE DONKEYS FOOT

• In their natural habitat donkey’s browse on sparse, fibrous vegetation, wandering over long distances in an arid, semi-desert environment surviving for perhaps 10-15 years.
  
• In developed countries with damp temperate climates most donkeys are kept as pets, enjoying a surfeit of good grazing and taking little exercise.
  
• They may live well beyond 30 years of age. Consequently, it is almost inevitable that foot problems will develop in this environment.
  
• Good hoof care is essential if these problems are to be minimised. This necessitates attention to each of the following.
  
• Daily hoof care and regular routine farriery.
  
• Good pasture and stable management.
  
• Correct feeding and general health care. Neglect of any of these factors will risk problems developing.
  

The normal donkey foot


Little objective study has been undertaken.

• The basic structure is similar to other equids; however there are significant differences.
  
• Both fore and hind feet are ‘U’ shape.
  
• Solar horn growth matches that of the walls.
  
• Wall thickness at the bearing surface is not reduced towards the heels.
  
• Microscopically horn tubule size, density, and distribution differ from the horse, generally being larger and fewer in numbers.
  
• Radiographically the extensor process of the pedal bone is below the upper limit of the hoof capsule in normal feet.
  
  

Routine trimming and trimming the overlong foot

• Donkeys generally require trimming every 6-10 weeks. Many are unused to handling so thoughtful restraint and well fitted head collars are invaluable. Excessive lifting of limbs, particularly of elderly donkeys with progressive osteoarthritis can cause discomfort and struggling.
  
• Assess for any evidence of ‘chronic foot disease’.
  
• Consider lateral weight bearing radiographs if in doubt.
  
• Attend to the sole first, removing all loose and necrotic material and paring back any overgrown frog.
  
• The sole is pared back in increments until ‘thumb pressure’ between the apex of the frog and the toe causes the sole to yield perceptibly.
  
• The wall should be dressed back guided by the pastern axis and the angle of the wall at the proximal midline. Medio-lateral balance should be assessed and adjusted if necessary.
  
• The balance, gait and comfort of the donkey should be assessed post trim.
  
• Consider advice on management, feeding and post farrier analgesia and care. 

THE LAME DONKEY

Lameness is often only recognised at an advanced stage in ‘pasture ornaments’.
Lame donkeys are often recumbent for long periods and may have a depressed appetite increasing the risk of hyperlipaemia.
A full clinical examination is advisable, including at least a visual inspection of the serum/plasma from a blood sample.
Hospitalised donkeys particularly when offered a more dry fibrous diet, are at risk of large intestinal impaction and should be monitored closely, especially if receiving analgesics.


Pedal sepsis


Pedal sepsis is the commonest cause of acute lameness.
Abscesses frequently track proximally from the white line at the bearing surface to eventually rupture at the coronary band.
Trim the foot back to a normal length and conformation initially.
The entire bearing surface should then be explored, paying particular attention to the white line area.
Chase suspicious ‘black marks’.
Hoof testers are of limited value; digital pressure at the coronary band often illicits a response from a related distal abscess.
Consider re-secting the overlying hoof wall to facilitate drainage, but beware injury and prolapse of the underlying sensitive corium.
Consider abaxial sesamoid nerve blocks to facilitate exploration and movement of severely lame donkeys.
Sub solar abscesses are often associated with terminal chronic foot disease/chronic laminitis and pedal bone degeneration.
Beware prescribing systemic antibiotics prior to establishing adequate drainage.
‘Hot tubbing’ and flushing lesions with dilute Povidine iodine (Pevidine antiseptic solution, C-Vet) is often useful.
Hospital shoes/surgical plates are often cost effective for protracted cases.
Daily dressing changes should be carried out.
Do not neglect analgesia, tetanus prophylaxis and appropriate nursing care.
Sugardine mix is a cheap and effective final dressing application. With a potent fungicidal and antibacterial action, it also promotes the drying and hardening of lesions.
Sugardine is made by mixing Pevidine antiseptic solution with granulated sugar to create a crumbly texture.

LAMINITIS


• A common yet often unrecognised problem, the owner may not be aware of mild, acute episodes that are frequently recurrent.
  
• Repeat bouts of laminitis cause serious structural damage to the hoof.
  
• The causes would appear to be similar to those precipitating laminitis in other equids with the predisposing factor being PPID and/or EMS in combination with.
  
• Grazing rich in soluble carbohydrate/fructan.
  
• Feed overload, e.g. large meals especially of cereal type mixes.
  
• Obesity.

Trauma, e.g. inappropriate farriery, overlong feet, uneven weight bearing (longstanding lameness in contra lateral limb).
Generalised/systematic illness e.g. PPID and toxaemias associated with infections. Laminitis cases deserve to be treated as an emergency and require a full clinical examination. Typical symptoms include.
Reluctance to move, recumbency and a preference for softer ground.
Foot pain especially over the midline coronary band.
Increased volume and pressure to the pulse in the digital arteries abaxial to the fetlock joint.
Weight shifting and alternate raising of the fore feet.
Increased weight bearing on the heels.
Feet landing heel then toe.
Pain may cause an increase in pulse and respiratory rates. Any combination of feet can be affected and all four feet should be assessed


Treatment

• Remove inciting cause/treat the precipitating condition.
  
  
• Provide initial analgesia I/V then orally, e.g. Phenylbutazone 4.4mg/kg I/V then 2.2mg/kg BID PO.
  Acetylpromazine 10mg/ml I/V 0.25ml/50 kg then 1 x 25mg per 50 kg BID (monitor for potential excessive sedation).
  
• Footpads – cover the entire sole with a thick pad. Frog supports are inappropriate for donkeys.
  
• Deep shavings beds are very useful.
  
• Rest and minimise walking – many weeks are necessary to regain lamellar stability.
  
• Appropriate diet, e.g. limited meadow hay, feed straw and high fibre, low soluble carbohydrate feeds. Do not starve.
  
• Re-examine after 24 hours if possible.
  
• Radiograph unresponsive cases.
  
• Explain nursing duties, feeding and farriery needs clearly to the owner.
  
• Consider blood sampling/urine testing recurrent cases.
  
• Plan weight control strategy.
  
  

CHRONIC FOOT DISEASE


This includes white line disease, seedy toe, onychomycosis, hollow hoof disease, chronic laminitis, and chronic founder. It is difficult to rationally separate all of these so called conditions. Experience would suggest that in many ways they are interlinked, varying only in the degree to which the individual symptoms are manifest. One may occasionally see feet with relatively minor lesions of seedy toe in an otherwise outwardly normal hoof. However significant lesions will almost invariably be associated with other abnormalities and the recommended approach to the care of these problems is similar. White line disease/Seedy toe are usually conditions of significance following recurrent laminar disease. The poorer quality horn and the ‘stretched’ white line particularly at the toe facilitate the entry of fungi and bacteria, which further degrades the hoof capsule. Seedy toe affects the horn layer on the outside of the white line and may be seen to radiate from a point of penetration of the white line. The horn takes on a grey crumbly texture with lesions varying in their severity from minor slits in the hoof wall to extensive separation of the wall from the white line. Such advanced lesions can extend for several centimetres towards the coronary band and for much of the circumference of the hoof. Filled with a degenerative mix of crumbling degenerate hoof material and debris, these lesions may sound hollow on percussion. Seedy toe lesions are rarely acutely painful. They do however predispose to the development of abscessation, in which case the donkey may be very lame (see advice on pedal sepsis).
Various factors appear to predispose to the development of seedy toe, these include.
Damp, dirty bedding.
Muddy paddocks.
Faecal and urinary contamination.
Poor diet.
Recurrent/chronic laminar disease.
Delayed farriery.
Old age.


Treatment

• Treatment is aimed at debriding all the affected horn, rebalancing the hoof, and providing dry clean bedding.
  
• Due to the different hoof wall loading pattern and thick sole, donkeys can cope quite well with extensive debridement at the toe.
  
• However, radiographs can be useful to assess underlying pathology in cases where the sole appears thin or there is doubt about how much hoof to resect.
  
• This is particularly recommended in donkeys with signs of concurrent chronic laminitis and dropped soles.
  
• A Sugardine dressing can be applied for a couple of days after resection to harden the remaining hoof.
  
• Apply to the affected hoof and keep in place with a thick cotton wool pad, cohesive type bandage and silage bag patches to waterproof the bandage.
  

Should you require further information please contact the Veterinary Department, Slade House Farm, Sidmouth, Devon EX10 0NU, by telephone on +44 (0)1395 579162, or by email to vets@thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk 

Reference
http://commons.wikivet.net/images/b/b5/Donkey_Foot_Care_Advice.pdf

MANAGEMENT FOR WEIGHT LOSS

Weight loss should be gradual and is achieved by choosing appropriate feeds that are low in energy but high enough in fibre to allow the donkey to eat to appetite.
Successful weight loss involves dietary changes plus management changes to increase activity levels. 
Donkeys who have been obese for a long period of time may never lose calcified fat pads on the neck and trunk, this should be accounted for when condition scoring.

DO’S

• Good quality, clean feeding straw should make up the majority of the donkey’s diet
• Barley straw is best but wheat straw can also be fed, if the donkey has poor teeth feed low calorie short chops in place of straw
• Supplement straw with a feed balancer to provide vitamins and minerals
• Encourage owners to feed ‘little and often’ to ensure donkeys are trickle feeding as they would in the wild, if possible encourage ad lib feeding
• Assess grazing management, and always restrict by strip grazing as donkeys will gain weight on grass; bare paddocks, sand schools or bark chipped exercise areas may be more appropriate
• Think about the location of feeders, water and shelter to encourage maximum movement throughout the day and if possible ridden, driven or in hand exercise
• Condition score and take heart girth measurements monthly and use The Donkey Sanctuary Weight Estimator to calculate weight and monitor weight loss

DON’TS

• Don’t starve the overweight donkey as this may cause unnecessary stress and hyperlipaemia
• Always avoid all cereal based feeds as they are too high in starch and sugar and will encourage weight gain as well as being implicated in the onset of gastric ulcers and laminitis
• Don’t forget to check straw for retained grain, shake over a tarpaulin before feeding if needed
• Don’t feed sugary treats, if treats are needed for training then choose a high fibre nut, and provide non-feed boredom breakers such as horse toys, old wellies, ash/beech/hazel logs
• Don’t expect results overnight, weight loss should be gradual at not more than 5kg a month POSSIBLE DIETS
• Good quality straw, bought from a trusted supplier should be the first option. Barley straw is most suitable for donkeys, but wheat straw may be suitable if the donkey has good teeth, oat straw is higher in calories so would need to be fed in smaller quantities.
• If straw is unavailable haylage such as High Fibre or Timothy Horsehage may be fed in limited quantities, don’t confuse this with farmer’s haylage which can be extremely variable in energy levels.
• Donkeys with poor teeth could be fed Mollichaff Donkey in place of straw, provide 2 – 3 kg per day to satisfy appetite for an average donkey.
• Add a feed balancer for a straw only diet e.g. Top Spec Donkey Forage Balancer fed at 100g per 100 kg bodyweight per day

References

http://commons.wikivet.net/images/0/0c/Management_for_Donkey_Weight_Loss.pdf

FEEDING & MANAGING THE UNDERWEIGHT DONKEY

• When dealing with an underweight donkey caution should be taken to try and establish the reason behind any weight loss before making any nutritional alterations.
• Weight loss can occur for a number of reasons and may be related to previous neglect, age, dental problems, health issues, loss of a companion, time of year and the quality of feed sources.
• Before making any changes to a donkey’s diet it would be beneficial to get the donkey checked over by a vet to rule out any underlying health issues.
• It would also be advisable to get a BAEDT / BEVA qualified Equine Dental Technician (EDT) to see the donkey to check for any dental problems which may be contributing to any weight loss and which may affect the types of feeds that the donkey will be able to manage.
• We advise that donkeys are routinely checked at least once a year by an EDT regardless of whether the donkey has any dental issues or not.

Management:

• Donkeys should be body condition scored regularly and have heart girth measurements taken to monitor weight loss/gain
• The provision of shelter is essential but rugs should also be considered during the colder months as a means of keeping the underweight donkey warm so that energy is not unnecessarily used up
• Faecal egg count tests should be performed regularly and donkeys wormed as and when necessary according to the results
• Underweight donkeys should not be initially overfed and any changes or increases to their diet should be done very gradually to avoid digestive upset

Diet:

• Assuming the donkey has no dental problems, ad lib straw and good quality hay or high fibre haylage (e.g. Horsehage High Fibre) should form the main part of the donkey’s diet
• If teeth are poor, a low energy and low non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) hay replacement product (e.g. Mollichaff Donkey or Spillers Happy Hoof) can be fed instead
• Hi-Fibre nuts (e.g. Saracens Donkey Diet or Spillers Hi Fibre Cubes) can be a good addition to the diet for encouraging weight gain and are best fed soaked
• Speedi-Beet can be useful as an appetising top dressing to Hi-Fibre nuts, feeding no more than 250g of soaked speedi-beet at a time
• For particularly underweight donkeys it may be useful to add small quantities of alfalfa to the diet as this has a higher level of protein. Alfalfa can be added to the diet in a short chop form (e.g. Mollichaff Hoofkind or Hi Fi Lite) or alternatively alfalfa pellets can be fed (e.g. Fibre Beet which must be soaked prior to feeding)
• A forage balancer such as Top Spec Comprehensive would be a good addition to the diet of an underweight donkey and will provide essential protein, vitamins and minerals that will aid weight gain
• Once the donkey starts to gain weight and reaches a body condition score close to ideal the type of forage balancer can be changed to a lower protein product e.g. Top Spec Donkey Forage Balancer

Reference
http://commons.wikivet.net/images/e/e3/Feeding_%26_Managing_the_Underweight_Donkey.pdf

NORMAL SERUM BIOCHEMICAL VALUES OF DONKEY

Parameter/units	Average	Range
Trig mmol/l	1	0.2 to 4.3
CPK IU/l	97	36 to 360
AST IU/l	220	11 to 401
GGT IU/l	29	13 to 79
GLDH IU/l	2.9	0.7 to 14.6
ALP IU/l	265	110 to 563
Bile acids	<20	---
Tbil μmol/l	2.7	1.4 to 7.7
TP g/l	70	58 to 82
Alb g/l	28	20 to 34
Amylase IU/l	8	0 to 24
Lipase IU/l	16	1 to 66
Glucose mmol/l	--	3.1 to 5
Na mmol/l	--	130 to 149
K mmol/l	--	2.8 to 4.3
Cl mmol/l	--	95 to 108
Chol mmol/l	--	1 to 3

References

Svendsen, E.D., Duncan, J. and Hadrill, D. (2008) The Professional Handbook of the Donkey, 4th edition, Whittet Books, Appendix 1

NORMAL HAEMATOLOGICAL VALUES OF DONKEY

Parameter/units	Average	Range
RBC 1012/l	5.5	4 to 7.3
PCV %	33	25-38
Hb g/dl	11.6	9-15.3
MCH pg	21.9	18.9 to 28.6
MCHC g/dl	34.8	31.4 - 39.1
MCV fl	64	57 - 79
WBC 109/l	10.2	6.1-16.1
NEU%	50.5	28-78
NEU T 109/l	5	2.2-13.3
EOS%	4	1 to 10
EOS T 109/l	0.38	0.09 -1.1
BAS%	0	0 - 0.8
BAS T 109/l	0	0 - 0.5
LYM%	43	17 - 65
LYM T 109/l	4.2	1.8 - 7.8
MON%	1	0-5
MON T 109/l	0.13	0-0.8
Platelets 109/l	5.5	04 to 7.3

References

Svendsen, E.D., Duncan, J. and Hadrill, D. (2008) The Professional Handbook of the Donkey, 4th edition, Whittet Books, Appendix 1

NORMAL PHYSIOLOGICAL VALUES OF DONKEY

PHYSIOLOGY	UNITS	RANGE
Temperature	°C	36.5-37.5
	°F	97.7-99.9
Pulse	Beats/minute	31-53
Respiration	Breaths /minute	13-31

Reference

Svendsen, E.D., Duncan, J. and Hadrill, D. (2008) The Professional Handbook of the Donkey, 4th edition, Whittet Books, Appendix 1